The General Crisis In The 17th Century History Essay

The General Crisis In The 17th Century History Essay The period of crisis that happened in Europe in the seventeenth century was one of the toughest in history. After the process of expansion and growth experienced during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Europe found itself in a deep crisis that lasted nearly a century. A crisis that was characterize by various features, foremost the demographic, because after the late Middle Ages the population had increased steadily; until it stops abruptly in the sixteenth century even to recede in many places. Other reasons that were attributed for causing this crisis included hunger, wars, revolts, politics, plagues and climate changes. Eric Hobsbawn argues that on the big picture, it was economic and social forces that created this mid 17th century crisis. On the other hand, Trevor Roper emphasized that the main causes for this crisis were the religious and political conflict. Although both arguments can be valid and were present in this disaster, I believe that the root causes of this cris is were religious and political differences, which ultimately led Europe to have economic and social conflicts as well. One important example of this crisis is the thirty years war. It was a war that took place in central Europe (especially in Germany) between 1618 and 1648, in which the majority of the great European powers intervened. This war would mark the future if the European continent in the centuries to follow  [1]  . The origin of this war goes back to the Peace of Augsburg, which basically stated that the religion of the ruler of the land will be the religion of the people. This resolved the conflicts between the Catholics and the Protestants for a while, but due to the diverse religions practiced in the German states, it did not solve the underlying religious issues definitively. Just by analyzing the phrases above, we automatically get the sense that it was religious conflicts the root cause of this war. This is confirmed by the event that sparked the war, the revolt in Bohemia. In this revolt, member of the predominantly protestant bohemian legislature threw two catholic government o fficials pot the window, as a sign of protest against the religious policies of the newly elected king, the catholic Ferdinand II  [2]  . However, the Catholics defeated the protestants, and this leads us to another example of religion causing the 30 years war; the intervention of the Danish and then the Swedish. This happened because of the fear of these kingdoms that their sovereignty as protestant lands was threatened by the Catholic success in the war, and also because the declarations of the king Frederick V, where he said that all Europe should be back to Catholic. Nevertheless, at this point the Catholics are still winning the war, and this catches the awareness of Cardinal Richelieu, who was the chief minister of King Louis XII of France. From this point on, this religious war becomes political, because even though he was catholic, France decides to join the war and help the Protestants. The reason for this was simple, balance of power; the French felt that Habsburgs hav e gained too much power and they did not want just one great power to control Europe  [3]  . This war is a great example of how religious and political reasons shaped this European crisis, and how these events led to the economic and social problems that a war brings, in order to fund the war with money and men. After all, this war was ended with the Treaty of Westphalia; which ironically ended up being like the treaty of the peace Augsburg that stated that the religion of the prince is the religion of the people. The political effects of this war were very traumatic as well, first it weakened the power of the empire, and the individual territories of the Germany gained more autonomy even than before the war  [4]  . Another problem that rose during this crisis was the war of the three kingdoms. This is another great example to argue that Trevor Roper was correct in explaining the main cause of the crisis. This war happened after England, Ireland and Scotland became united under the power of only one ruler. This was possible because, since Queen Elizabeth of England had no direct heir to her throne, the next in line was James Stuart, the king of Scotland  [5]  . So what types of problems this created? First, James was a firm believer of the divine right monarchy, which basically means that he was placed there by god and does not have to report to anyone else. This belief did not bring many problems to other nations; however, the fact that England had a parliament created a lot of political tensions in this era. Expanding upon this, the wealth that the members of the parliament had acquired from the agricultural innovation, the expansion of their land and sheep count, increased this problems e ven more, because they now wanted to match their political power with their economic power. The fact of this happening brings us back to our thesis, and shows a religious problem becoming political, which ultimately becomes social. I argue this because the parliament starts to have power from the times of King Henry, when he needed their approval to separate from the Catholic Church (religion). Years after, this backfires to King James, because it gave more authority to the wealthy parliament, and clash with his ideals of divine right and absolutism (Politics). Subsequently, creating a lot tension and confusion among the people of the three kingdoms, whose laws and taxes kept changing as the power of the monarchy and the parliament would fluctuate (Social)  [6]  . To further support our point, we can cite the historian Paul Hazard, who coined the term crisis of the European consciousness to define an ideological crisis that could be found in the intellectual ambient of Europe after the wars of religion  [7]  . This is a valid argument since it is logical to believe that religious conflicts could rupture the emotional stability of a society that is very much influenced by god and religion. The raise and growth of new religions that differed in many matters with ancient Catholicism brought into the map many thinkers that challenged even more the traditional beliefs.   Intellectuals such as Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke and Newton share a common time, it can even be dated astronomically with the famous Halleys comet of 1680 which allowed Pierre Bayle drafting its Charter, and use this to make fun (in a way) at the Religious superstitions and affirm that knowledge must be constantly proven and updated  [8]  . However, this eventuall y created some social problems, since most of the universities and teaching centers were controlled and had the patronage of the church, being either catholic, like the Jesuits, or protestants. This is another example of how religious conflicts (Trevors argument) happened first and the led to social problems (Hobsbawn argument) Possibly the best example of the religious and political causes of this crisis was the glorious revolution. Going back to the origin of the problem, old King James II was a Catholic that had already irritated the parliament by relaxing the restrictions on the Catholics and allowing them to hold positions in public offices  [9]  . Nevertheless, James was old and next line for the throne was his daughter Mary, a protestant that was married to William of Orange; so the parliament does not really take any action. However, things turn ugly after James II has a son that would mean the continuity of Catholic rule in England, which the parliament would not allow. This caused the glorious revolution, and causes James to escape to France with his son, and William of Orange is invited to be king of England  [10]  . It is interesting to see how the biggest political problem that King James II had was the fact that he was catholic; once again religion. In addition, the fact that the parliament is the one that invites William to be king summarizes the amount of power that he would have, which as we can see, was very limited. He was given many restrictions, such as the obligation to be an Anglican, he was not allowed to have a standing army, he was not allowed to veto a parliament act and there was no arbitrary arrest  [11]  . Based on this, comes a liberal social movement that will support the ideas of the parliament in a way, and moves England even further away from absolutism. A leader of this movement is John Locke. We can see in his Two treatises to the government his idea of the natural right to live, which basically states that we all have a right to liberty and the possession of property. Moreover, if the government does not protect the natural right to live of the people, they can reve l and a demand a ruler who does not violate their rights  [12]  . Trevor and Hobsbawn use the Fronde in France as another example of the general crisis. It begun because of general discontent of the people. His beginnings were based on the economic crisis and increasing the tax burden generated to address the cost of participation of France in the Thirty Years War. Its most direct cause, however, can be found in the means used by the monarchy to raise taxes. With the arrival of the regent the people expected the monarchy to cut rates, but not so: Cardinal Mazarin thought that France could support the war and did not let up the pressure. In addition, the Parliament of Paris tried to limit the power of King Louis XIV and also the nobility felt threatened by the king and wanted more of a voice in the government. All of the causes of the Fronde have political implications to it. Even If it is argued that the raise of the taxes was a social problem, it was a political decision to raise the taxes for war and specially to actually enter the war, with the ideals of balance of power  [13]  . In conclusion, the general crisis was characterized by a series of wars, revolts, decline of population and political and social changes that in many cases could have been avoided if the right precautions would have been taken. However, the fact Europe was undergoing a time political absolutism (at least that is what the rulers intended) and the close relation between church and government, made it impossible to avoid the conflicts. The numerous wars that happened (all for political and religious reasons) aided by plagues and diseases, caused the first decline in the population after the middle ages, therefore creating social and economic problems in the region. This is the reason why I believe that Trevor Roper was right by saying that the root cause of the crisis was political and religious (decisions to go to war, monarchs selected for their religion, etc); which then led to economic and social problem(increase of taxation, price revolution, and decline in population), aggravating even more the situation.

Eschools as Organisations Post 16 Options for Young People and Adults Essay

1. 2 Explain the post 16 options for young people and adults: – Once a young person has reached year 11 there are a number of choices to make about their future, this could be choosing a new course at school or college or entering employment and training. These options will give them a good base on building a future career. Post 16:- Continue in full time education either sixth form or at a local college. Depending on their results they can choose from the list below:- Post 17:- If they have just completed a one-year course, following Year 12, they may decide to continue their studies full time or look for jobs and training:- Post 18:- Following Year 13, they will have a number of choices to make about their future. They may decide to continue their studies full time or look for jobs or training. List of options for post 16, 17 and 18. Course at entry level- Entry level courses do not require any exam passes and usually take one or two years to complete, a course at this level is an – Entry Level Certificate. Course at Level 1(foundation Level) – Foundation level courses do not usually require any exam passes. Depending on which course they do it usually takes either one or two years to complete. Examples of courses at this level are: -Introductory Certificates/Diplomas -National First Award (level 1) -National certificate/Award (level 1) -GCSEs -NVQ Level 1 Welsh Baccalaureate Qualification (foundation Level) All foundation Level courses can lead to higher level courses or work and training. Courses at level 2 (intermediate level) – Intermediate Level courses may require two or three passes at grades D–G and they usually take two years to complete. Examples of courses at this level are: – GCSEs – First Certificates/Diplomas – National Certificates/Awards (Level 2) – NVQ Level 2 – Foundation Apprenticeship – Welsh Baccalaureate Qualification (Intermediate) All Intermediate Level courses can lead to higher level course or jobs with training. (Providing they get the grades required). Courses at level 3 (advanced level) Four or five GCSEs at grades A*- C or equivalents are usually required for entry. Depending on the type of course, they generally take either one or two years to complete. Examples of courses at this level are: – AS/A levels, including applied A levels – National Diploma – International Baccalaureate – Welsh Baccalaureate Qualification (Advanced) †¢ NVQ Level 3 – Apprenticeship. All Advanced Level courses can lead to higher education or jobs and training (providing they get the grades required in the appropriate subjects). Welsh Baccalaureate Qualification:- The Welsh Bac is now becoming available to more learners throughout Wales in schools, colleges and work-based settings. It allows for more flexibility in their studies. They will also develop skills and learning styles that prepare you for further and higher education, as well as the world of work. The Welsh Bac consists of two parts: Core – consisting of five components: – An Individual Investigation (which is like a project) into a subject of their own choice. – Wales, Europe and the World – Key Skills – Work-related education – Personal and social education. Options – where they choose from course/programmes that are currently offered, for example: – GCSE – AS/A levels – VCE (Vocational A levels) – NVQ – BTEC – OCR. – New Principal Learning and Project Qualification will also be available as option within the Welsh Bac. Apprenticeships: Apprenticeships bring them formal qualifications and highly specific work skills. They must be employed so they will be earning while they learn. They can also use Apprenticeship as a stepping stone to higher qualifications. As an Apprentice, their skills and role are respected, many top managers started out by learning a trade and understanding how the organisation works from the ground up. To gain access to an apprenticeship applicants would need: – – Four or five GCSEs at grade C or above are usually needed. – They’d be paid while they learn the skills that employers are looking for. – They’d gain an NVQ Level 3 qualification as an Apprentice or a Level 2 qualification as a foundation Apprentice. Higher Apprenticeships are also available at a Level 4 or above. Traineeships: If the student was leaving school or college a Traineeship could help them get the skills needed to get a job or progress to further learning at a higher level, for example Apprenticeships or further education. In most cases they can start on a Traineeship at any point during the year and they don’t need any formal qualifications to access the programme. There are different levels of Traineeship. (Post 18) †¢ Engagement: If they are finding it difficult to find the right job, get into work or develop their skills and learning, this level will help prepare them for the world of work or full time learning. This level can include work placements, community projects or training. Level 1: If they know what career they want to follow and are ready for full-time learning at Level 1, this level will allow them to progress their skills further in their chosen subject and can also include work placements and community projects. If they have successfully completed a Level 1 and are still out of work, they maybe eligible to start learning at Level 2. Voluntary work: As well as doing something worthwhile and rewarding in its own right, voluntary work can also be a good way of gaining skills and experience, especially if they don’t find a job or training right away. It also looks good on a CV. Youth Gateway: If they need some extra help and support before applying for a course, job or training, Youth Gateway is a short programme run by Careers Wales to help them with identifying and developing skills, job search, making applications and choosing suitable courses. Information on this can found at the local Careers Wales Centre. Direct. Gov [15 April 2012] www. education. gov. uk [1 April 2012 wales. gov. uk [ 1 April 2012].

African American Heritage Paper Essay

This paper explores the African American heritage and also identifies the significance of nurses being culturally aware, sensitive and competent when caring for people of African American heritage. Although these terms mentioned above are used interchangeably, they have different meanings. Cultural awareness is appreciating the external or material part of the culture, such as the music, arts, and physical characteristics, and dress. Cultural sensitivity is the personal attitudes toward the culture, such as not saying things that is offensive to someone from a different ethnic or cultural background (Purnell,2013, p. 4). Cultural competence is putting it all together; by using your knowledge to provide culturally congruent care and to be able to work effectively with people in cross- cultural situations. African Americans are the second largest ethnocultural groups in the United States; however, it is one of the most misunderstood cultures. This culture is so unique because they have mixed their cultures from their different homes of origin in Africa, along with American culture. This paper overviews the history, communications, family roles, workforce issues, biocultural ecology, high-risk behaviors, pregnancy and childbearing practices, spirituality, health care practices, nutrition, and death rituals in the African American culture. It is important that nurses see themselves as becoming culturally competent when caring for African Americans, and this involves incorporating cultural desire, cultural awareness, cultural knowledge, cultural skill, and cultural encounter with the people of African American heritage (Campinha-Bacote, 2009). 2 A NURSING METHOD TO AFRICAN AMERICAN HERITAGE One of the largest minority groups in the United States, African Americans culture includes the various cultural traditions of different African ethnic groups. â€Å"Data from the U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census (2001) reveals that there are approximately 34,333,000 African Americans residing in the United States, representing 12. 1% of the total population† (Campinha-Bacote, 2009). They were forcibly imported into the United States as slaves from 1619 to 1860 (Purnell, 2013, p. 21). During slavery, they incorporated their culture from their homes of origin, and as a result, their culture included several cultural traditions of African ethnic groups. Many African Americans live in poverty due to discrimination and lack of proper education. Most families of African American heritage value education, but they still struggle to have equal representation in the workplace, and are more likely to work in a hazardous environment, resulting in job related diseases and illness. Due to the lower-level positions and the difficulty in achieving higher opportunities in the workplace, some African Americans continue to feel discouraged. Nurses need to address discrimination and also issues that create ethnic or racial tension in the workplace. English is the language spoken by African Americans, however, people of lower socio economical status communicate in an informal language known as African American English (AAE) (Purnell, 2013, p. 22). According to Campinha-Bacote (2009), the major problem that AAE speakers face is prejudice. Most people believe that AAE is inferior to Standard American English. As a result, African Americans who speak AAE are sometimes misinterpreted as being uneducated. Nurses should be aware not to stereotype African Americans as only speaking AAE, and also not to stereotype them as uneducated based on the way they communicate. African Americans are expressive when 3 A NURSING METHOD TO AFRICAN AMERICAN HERITAGE communicating and often use body languages to convey their feelings. Their expressive language and body movement can be misconstrued as anger or provocation. Nurses need to be familiar with these characteristics and not misinterpret them. As a nurse, when interacting with African Americans for the first time, be sure to address them formally, until given permission to use other names, such as their first name. The African-American family has evolved over the last two decades and still continues to evolve. A person that is brought up in a traditional nuclear family is more likely to continue that tradition. Whereas, a person that is brought up in a single parent home is more likely to continue that same tradition. Although these situations are more likely, they are not always so. To provide the most competent care, the best thing for the nurse to do would be to ask the patient in a non-judgmental way about family dynamics and also ask them what they would feel the most comfortable with when it comes to decision making for their care. The nurse should then accept this decision. Being knowledgeable about this cultural group’s family values and beliefs are crucial for providing care for the African American patient (Revell & McGhee, 2012). A high percentage of African American households are matriarchal and fall below poverty level. With that being said, it is wise for nurses to make a point of including women when discussing health care issues. Nurses also should take note when dealing with homosexual individuals in this ethnic group, not to break confidence by sharing their lifestyles with others. This information can jeopardize and cause conflicts within the family and ruin relationships. Romantic relationships of the same-sex are not totally acceptable within this culture. 4 A NURSING METHOD TO AFRICAN AMERICAN HERITAGE As in many culture, social status is important in African American community. African Americans are often met with negative atmosphere and prejudice attitudes based on their cultural background and skin color. Assumptions are made based on AAE spoken by some as an indication of unintelligence and the lack of education. These assumptions sometimes affect employment opportunities and job promotions. Nurses should be cautious not to fall into the stereotyping African Americans based on these characteristics. African American skin color ranges from light to very dark due to the combination of a gene pool of more than 100 racial strains (Purnell, 2013, p. 25). When assessing for cyanosis in dark-skinned African Americans, be sure to pay attention to the oral mucosa or conjunctiva. When assessing for pallor, note the absence of the underlying red tones that give the skin it’s glow. Lastly, when observing for jaundice, be sure to look at the sclera of the eyes, the soles of the feet, and the palms of the hands for any yellow discoloration (25). Health care is a luxury that low socioeconomic African Americans may not be able to afford. Meeting their daily needs takes priority over what they believe to be minor health issues. Consequently, diseases that could be treatable might end up being a life- threatening situation. African Americans are family orientated, because of this; some tend to initially seek medical attention from family members rather than going to a health care professional. Health care professionals need to be aware of this and work toward teaching and distributing health information via church and community centers. Most African American women are against abortion due to religious, cultural, and moral beliefs. As a result, there is a delay in making a decision until it becomes too late. 5 A NURSING METHOD TO AFRICAN AMERICAN HERITAGE Family support is crucial for pregnant African American women. Gichia (2000) studied and found out that African American women look for role models such as older female relatives, or if they have none, they look for someone who seemed like a mother to them, such as a neighbor. These role models can provide the pregnant woman and new mother with needed support. According to Abbyad & Robertson (2011), nurses caring for pregnant African American women need to be informed about the variety of ways in which childbirth preparation can occur, as in any other group of pregnant women. Moreover, nurses need to consider the ways in which their attitudes and behaviors send unwelcoming messages to African American women seeking prenatal care or childbirth classes. These attitudes can discourage the African American woman in seeking further care. â€Å"Culturally competent care for the childbearing African American woman includes addressing all components of care including the use of complementary and alternative medicine† (Revell, 2012). The childbirth nurse that is providing culturally competent care should be aware that the perceived norm is different for every family. African Americans are spiritual and are usually affiliated with some religious order. Historically, the church has played a major role in the life of African American culture. The church is a place where they can meet on common grounds. Faith and prayer is one of the most important attributes of Christian African Americans. They believe that God has the power to heal them, and he also has the power not to. They believe that whatever happens to them is according to God’s will. Food is very valuable in the African American culture. It symbolizes health and wealth. It is derived from African descent. When food is offered to someone, it means that the person is valued; and by offering food, they are given you something that is 6 A NURSING METHOD TO AFRICAN AMERICAN HERITAGE valuable to them. When it comes to nutrition, some African American diets are high in cholesterol and fats. According to James (2004), â€Å"African Americans will need information on basic nutrition topics such as serving sizes and reading food labels†. Nurses that work in African American communities should be involved in programs that promote healthy food choices. These programs can specifically be developed for churches, neighborhood grocery stores, and local restaurants. â€Å"Health disparities among the African-American population include life expectancy, heart disease, hypertension, infant morality and morbidity rates, cancer, sickle cell diseases, HIV/AIDS, violence, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and asthma† (Campinha-Bacote, 2009). Unfortunately, they have the tendency to see a health care professional only when absolutely necessary. â€Å"Health is viewed as harmony with nature, whereas illness is seen as a disruption in this harmonic state due to demons† (Purnell, 2013, p. 33). Recognize and support your patient cultural behaviors and believes to promote healthy interactions. In addition, always provide factual information about health practices that may not be understood due to their cultural believes and cultural differences. In conclusion, it is recommended that nurses familiarize themselves with cultural specific information in order to provide cultural competent care in African American community. Nurses should consider the following question: â€Å"In caring for African- American patients, have I asked myself the right questions. † It is important for nurses to be aware of their biases and prejudices toward African Americans. In addition, they should possess the needed skills to conduct a cultural assessment while possessing knowledge of this cultural group (Campinha-Bacote, 2009). Lastly, nurses should always 7 A NURSING METHOD TO AFRICAN AMERICAN HERITAGE have the desire to become culturally competent not just with African American patients, but any patient that has been placed in their charge. 8 A NURSING METHOD TO AFRICAN AMERICAN HERITAGE Resources Abbyad, C. , & Robertson, T. (2011). African American Women’s Preparation for Childbirth From the Perspective of African American Health-Care Providers. Journal Of Perinatal Education, 20(1), 45-53. doi:10. 1891/1058-1243. 20. 1. 45 Campinha-Bacote, J. (2009). Culture and diversity issues. A culturally competent model of care for African Americans. Urologic Nursing, 29(1), 49-54. Gichia, J. E, (2000), Mothers and others: African-American women’s preparation for motherhood. The American Journal of Maternal Child Nursing, 25(2), 86-91, James, D. (2004). Factors influencing food choices, dietary intake, and nutrition-related attitudes among African Americans: application of a culturally sensitive model. Ethnicity & Health, 9(4), 349-367. Purnell, L. D. (2009). People of African American Heritage. Guide to culturally competent health care (2nd ed. , p. 21-35). Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Co. Revell, M. A. , & McGhee, M. N. (2012). Evolution of the African American Family. International Journal Of Childbirth Education, 27(4), 44-48. Revell, M. A. (2012). Use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine in the African American Culture. International Journal Of Childbirth Education, 27(3), 55-59.

The Two Principles Of Accrual Accounting - 891 Words

In order to fully understand the accounting cycle and complete all eight steps, an accountant must understand the adjusting and closing process and be able to prepare trial balances. The unadjusted, adjusted, and post-closing trial balances are all prepared during the eight step accounting cycle. In order to maintain the most accurate financial statements, accrual accounting should be used. Accrual accounting is an â€Å"accounting method that records revenues when earned and expenses when incurred without regard to when cash is exchanged† (Kemp Waybright, 2013, p. 126). In order to master the eight step process of the accounting cycle, an accountant should use accrual accounting, understand the adjusting and closing process, and be able to†¦show more content†¦Adjusting entries are journal entries that adjust accounts to the correct balances. Accrual accounting records revenues and expenses when they are earned or incurred. Sometimes adjusting entries need to be ma de to adjust for unearned service revenue or depreciation expenses. The adjusting entries will correctly balance accounts and correct any understatement or overstatement in the revenue or expense accounts. If the adjusting entries are not made it can overstate or understate net income and completely misrepresent the financial statements. The fifth step in the accounting cycle is preparing an adjusted trial balance. Once all of the accounts have been adjusted, the balanced totals can be transferred over to the adjusted trial balance. The adjusted trial balance should give an accurate balance on all accounts. After completing the adjusted trial balance, the next step in the accounting cycle is preparing the financial statements. The totals from the adjusted trial balance will be used to prepare each financial statement. The seventh step is posting closing entries. Closing entries are journal entries that close revenues, expenses, and dividends. In order to close these accounts, the to tal balance needs to be entered into the opposite column of the accounts to zero them out. For instance, service revenue would be debited and retained earnings would be credited. All expense accounts and dividends wouldShow MoreRelatedAccrual Basis Vs. Cash Basis1737 Words   |  7 PagesAbstract This is a discussion of two types of accounting methods that most companies use, accrual basis or cash basis. A definition of both concepts and comparisons between the two methods will be discussed. In addition, it describes and examines the difference in the managing of those methods and which form of accounting method is more useful and beneficial to provide information to users for different purposes. 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